Formula Feeding for Nutrition and Safety: How Much and How Often

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Formula feeding for nutrition and safety: how much and how often 

Breast milk is the best source of nutrition for infants, supplying all the essential nutrients a baby requires throughout their first 6 months of life.1 It contains numerous bioactive compounds including oligosaccharides, bacteria and immune cells in optimal quantities as required by an infant.1-3 These work together to promote a healthy gut microbiota and immune system,2,3 and support the infant’s healthy growth and development.1-3 

The foundations for an infant’s gut and immune health are laid during their first 1,000 days of life, and ensuring optimal nutrition during this period can have lifelong benefits for their health and immune function.4,5 

While breast milk is the gold standard, there are various instances in which breastfeeding is not possible. In these cases, infant formula is the only suitable and safe alternative to breast milk.6 

In Australia and New Zealand, commercial infant formulas are regulated by the ANZ Food Standards Code, 6 mandating all products meet an infant’s nutritional needs and contain components designed to mimic some of the functional benefits of human breast milk.7 When a mother cannot breastfeed, infant formula is the best alternative to breast milk to ensure an infant receives the nutrients they need in safe concentrations and quantities.6 It’s important that healthcare professionals to provide parents with accurate guidance on how much formula to give to a baby.  

This article provides clinical expertise, insights and research-based information to help healthcare professionals provide appropriate and effective recommendations to any patients requiring formula feeding advice. 

Understanding infant nutrition and the role of infant formula feeding 

An infant requires a variety of nutrients and other components during their first months of life to ensure healthy growth and development, all of which are naturally contained in breast milk.2,3,6 These include water, antibodies to protect against infection, enzymes to support digestion and nutrient absorption, essential fatty acids required for healthy brain development, prebiotic oligosaccharides and probiotics to support a healthy gut microbiota and immune system maturation, proteins, vitamins, minerals, nucleotides, hormones and more.8-10 

These components are present in specific quantities and interact in unique ways to provide the unmatched benefits associated with breast milk.9,10 However, in instances where breastfeeding is not possible, some infant formulas have novel ingredients added that may be able to emulate some of the functional benefits of breast milk. For example, formulas supplemented with specific prebiotic oligosaccharides designed to closely mimic those naturally found in breast milk, like short chain galacto-oligosaccharides (scGOS) and long-chain fructo-oligosaccharides (lcFOS), can help to establish a gut microbiota in formula-fed infants which more closely resembles that of a breastfed infant.11-13 These prebiotics can reach the intestine undigested, allowing them to fuel the growth of beneficial bacteria strains to support the colonisation of a balanced, healthy microbiota.14 This has long-term implications for an infant’s health and immunity, as well as their risk of developing allergies, infections and other health complications.15,16 

Studies demonstrate that infants who are exclusively breastfed are much less likely to experience developmental delays, infection diseases, and poorer cognitive outcomes.17 Breast milk appears to have a protective effect against disease and a positive impact on cognitive outcomes, highlighting the role of breastfeeding in supporting optimal health and developmental outcomes in infants.17 

Breast milk has been proven to provide nutritional and developmental benefits to infants, including reducing their risk of health complications like sudden infant death, necrotising enterocolitis, infectious diseases, obesity, and type 1 and 2 diabetes.17,18 It has also been shown to support cognitive development in infants18 as well as facilitating the development of a healthy, diverse and balanced gut microbiota,19-21 which significantly influences an infant’s immune function both in the short- and long-term.22 

However, when an infant is born prematurely, the mother’s breast milk will also differ in composition to that produced at full term.1 Premature breast milk contains greater quantities of sodium, chloride, fat and protein, with prematurely born infants also having different nutritional requirements than term infants.1 

Breastfeeding also provides benefits to the mother, including reducing her risk of breast and ovarian cancer.18 

This foundational understanding of the importance of breastfeeding and the role of infant formula can support clinical decision making and patient counselling, allowing patients to receive more accurate, personalised and effective advice and support. 

Learn more about the typical breastfeeding amount an infant requires in their first months of life here. 

While the World Health Organization recommends exclusive breastfeeding for at least the first 6 months of an infants’ life,23 there are instances where this is not possible or preferred. In these cases, studies show that any amount of breastfeeding is still beneficial for an infant’s health and development.24

Learn more about mixed feeding here.

Baby development milestones: aged-based guidelines for formula feeding

The amount of formula required by an infant differs based on their age, size, baby milestones and various other factors. An infant’s formula needs are also distinct from the typical breastfeeding amount they require.

Parents often want answers to questions such as “How much formula should I give my baby?” It’s important to provide tailored, specific advice based on each infant’s developmental milestones, hunger cues and unique requirements, using the following ranges as a guideline. – 1-4 days old: 30-60 ml/kg bodyweight per day (increase over their first few days)25

– 5 days-3 months: 150 ml/kg bodyweight per day25

– 3-6 months: 120ml/kg bodyweight per day25

– 6-12 months: 100 ml/kg bodyweight per day.25

Infants have different formula requirements, and their needs can also change day to day.25 It’s important for parents to use their child’s hunger and fullness signals (verbal or physical) to guide formula feeding (when and how much to feed), rather than solely relying on the packaging’s indication.25 Parents should also be aware of signs their infant is getting enough milk, which include their child appearing active and content, steadily gaining weight, and producing 6+ wet nappies per day.25

Share our Responsive Feeding guide with your patients to help them understand how to identify and react to their child’s hunger cues. Get it here.

Newborns 0–1 Month:

In their first days of life, newborns only need small amounts of formula at each feed given their stomach is still tiny at this stage.25,26 They should be fed small quantities often throughout the day. It’s not unusual or concerning for a full bottle to go unfinished during this period.6,25

Formula-fed newborns need around 30-60 ml of formula per kilogram of bodyweight daily in their first five days of life, with this amount gradually increasing.25

From day five, infants require approximately 150 ml of formula per kilogram of bodyweight daily.6

Babies born prematurely tend to have increased nutrient requirements, needing around 160-180 ml of formula per kilogram of bodyweight per day,6 though parents should always be guided by a neonatal doctor or maternal and child health nurse.

Infants 1–3 Months:

Between 1-3 months of age, infants continue to need around 150 ml of formula per kilogram of bodyweight each day, meaning a healthy term baby weighing 3 kg will need about 450 ml of infant formula daily.27 Parents are recommended to feed on demand according to their child’s hunger and fullness signals.27 As an infant develops and grows, their feeds will become more efficient. However, in the first weeks of their life feeds can take up to an hour, and they may feed around six times per day.26 Infants 3–6 Months: As an infant grows, their formula feeding requirements continue to change.6 After an initial growth spurt commonly experienced in their first couple of months, their daily formula needs slightly decrease between 3-6 months of age.6 The number of feeds they demand throughout a day may lessen slightly as their stomach grows, and they begin to feed more efficiently. 26 Infants require around 120 ml of formula per kilogram of bodyweight every day during this period.6

Infants 6-12 Months:

Around 6 months of age, infants are ready for the gradual introduction of solid foods, while also continuing to need formula daily. By now, an infant’s stomach has grown further, and while formula remains their primary source of nutrition, the volume of a baby’s feeds will vary in line with their consumption of solid foods.26 Their formula requirements decrease again to between 90-120 ml per kilogram of bodyweight daily at this stage.6

The introduction of complementary foods means a formula-fed infant can obtain some nutrients from solid foods, and others from formula. Lumpy, mashed foods should be introduced before 9 months of age, even if an infant’s teeth haven’t yet developed. However, small and hard foods including raw apple, carrot, grapes, popcorn and nuts are not appropriate at this time, due to the high risk of choking with these foods.25

Each baby is different, with some preferring to feed finger foods to themselves (under supervision at all times) or holding a spoon to feed.25 Many infants enjoy holding and drinking from their own cup too, though they may need assistance when they near the end of their drink.25 While self-feeding can be messy, it allows infants to develop independence and facilitates bonding and healthy attachment when parents are supportive, present and connected to their child throughout the process.25 Maintaining eye contact and helping them feed themselves as needed is important. Get our useful guide on Introducing Solids to share with patients here.

Formula feeding by body weight

Infant formula requirements are determined based on their current bodyweight, and are also tailored to their age, as this accommodates for periods of rapid growth and development and ensures they’re getting adequate nutrition and energy each day.6 Recommendations are provided as a guide only, and some babies may need more or less than these amounts depending on individual circumstances.

     
     
     
     
     

Recognising infant hunger and fullness cues

Parents need to be able to identify hunger and fullness cues in their child, to understand things like has the baby had enough formula, or does the baby need more formula? These signals can help parents recognise if their child needs more or less food, and facilitates feeding on demand as recommended.

How to know when a baby is getting enough formula

Indications or signs a baby is getting enough formula include:

  • Producing wet and dirty nappies. From their first few days of life, babies generally produce around six or more wet nappies and one dirty nappy daily when they’re getting enough formula.27
  • Steady and consistent weight gain27,28
  • Appearing alert and happy after a feed.27,28

The hunger signals

Newborns and infants should be fed on-demand, or whenever they show signs of hunger. After their first few days, a healthy, term formula-fed baby generally feeds every 2-3 hours, with this becoming less frequent as their stomach grows and can hold more milk.28

However, there will still likely be times when an infant appears to be hungrier than normal, which may coincide with periods of rapid growth. These commonly occur around 7-14 days old, 3-6 weeks old, and again at around 4 and 6 months old.28 During these periods, parents should follow the infant’s hunger cues and increase the amount of formula offered as needed, feeding whenever the child shows they’re hungry.

Common signals indicating an infant is hungry include: – Moving their head from side to side

  • Opening their mouth and/or poking out their tongue
  • Putting hands, fists and fingers to their mouth
  • Puckering their lips and making sucking faces or motions.29

Parents should respond to these cues quickly, ensuring their baby is fed before they become upset or start crying.29

Signs a baby is full or is getting too much formula

Infants are generally good at self-regulating and ceasing feeding when they’ve had enough, however bottle-fed babies can sometimes drink too much formula in one go.30 Parents and carers should always watch the baby while they’re feeding, as they naturally pause every few minutes. When they do, gently stop the milk flow by either removing or lowering the bottle. This helps to pace feed and reduce the risk of overfeeding.30 Signs that a baby is full or is getting too much formula include:

  • Vomiting after feeding (though spitting up is normal)31
  • Tummy pain. If the infant draws up their legs, or their stomach seems tense and tight, they may be experiencing stomach pain31 – Turning their head away from the bottle. This can indicate they’re full or have had enough for now32
  • Falling asleep or becoming disinterested during feeding.32

Fullness cues should also be responded to quickly.32 Parents should finish feeding as soon as an infant shows they’ve had enough, rather than trying to force them to finish the bottle. A feed can take up to one hour, but 20-30 minutes is typical for most babies.32

If a baby seems to want to feed constantly, parents can try offering a pacifier to soothe their need to suck.30

Safe formula preparation, storage, and handling

It’s important to safely handle, prepare and store infant formula to ensure an infant is receiving the right nutrients in optimal quantities to support their healthy growth and development, and is protected from pathogens and illness. Infant formula brands differ in how they should be prepared and stored, so parents should always strictly follow the instructions on the packaging when using and preparing their chosen formula.

When preparing a bottle, parents will require:

  • Their choice of formula
  • Clean water
  • Bottles
  • Teats, which are available in many different shapes, sizes and materials
  • Sterilising equipment.

Food Standards Australia New Zealand (FSANZ) has stringent labelling regulations for infant formulas, designed to ensure parents and carers are provided with safe, consistent and accurate information about product suitability, preparation instructions, and the need to seek guidance from a healthcare professional.33

These requirements also mandate the inclusion of statements about breastfeeding as the optimal feeding choice, and are intended to prevent any misleading claims and ensure clear and accurate information is provided industry-wide.33

Preparing formula

Parents or carers should be reminded of the importance of preparing formula accurately, according to specific instructions included on their chosen product’s packaging. This includes correctly measuring water and formula content to ensure their infant is receiving the right quantities and concentrations of the nutrients it contains.

Before preparing formula, parents and carers should be sure to:

– Wash hands and clean preparation area thoroughly.6 ‘

– Wash and sterilise bottles, teats and all utensils by boiling for 5 minutes, or using an approved steriliser.27

– Check the expiry date on the formula packaging to ensure it’s safe to use (typically, powders should be used within one month of opening).

– Follow the packaging instructions carefully and accurately.

– Prepare each bottle separately. Use cooled, safe drinking water that has recently been boiled in a saucepan or kettle.

– Measure the required volume of water into a sterilised feeding bottle.

– Use only the enclosed scoop. Always use a dry scoop. Fill the scoop lightly and level off with a sterilised knife or the built in leveller within the formula tin (if available). Avoid compacting the powder in the scoop.25

– Add the required amount of powder to the bottle. Always add the powder to the water. Cap the bottle, then swirl and shake to dissolve the powder.

Before offering the bottle, test the temperature on the inside of their wrist before feeding. It should be the same temperature as their skin, or feel slightly warm. Feed immediately and discard unfinished formula within 2 hours.27

– It’s safer to prepare each bottle as needed and use immediately after it is prepared. If a bottle of made-up formula is to be prepared in advance, store at the back of the fridge (2-4°C) and use within 24 hours. Discard any unrefrigerated, unused formula after 24 hours.27

– If parents or carers are heading out for a period of time, try packing hot water in a flask separate to the powder, then prepare the bottle right before it’s required.

– Warm a bottle by standing it in a bowl of hot (but not boiling) water for around 10 mins. Never warm a bottle in the microwave.

Infants should be held close and talked to gently while feeding, as carer-baby contact is important. They should never be left unsupervised to feed.25

Download our free resource to learn more about how to safely prepare formula and bottles here.

Our video guides can also help your patients understand how to prepare bottles and formula correctly – find them here.

Storage guidelines

Storing formula correctly ensures the product maintains its nutritional quality and safety. Parents and carers should follow these evidence-based best practices when storing product: – Use a fresh, sterilised bottle for each feed.34

– It is safer to prepare each bottle as needed and use immediately after it is prepared. Discard unfinished formula within 2 hours.

– If a bottle of made-up formula is to be prepared in advance, store at the back of the fridge (2-4°C) and use within 24 hours. Discard any unrefrigerated formula not used within 24 hours.

– Throw away any remaining formula after one month of opening the tin. Throw away the scoop each time a tin is finished.34 Optimal sterilisation for bottle feeding equipment

Thorough sterilisation of bottles, teats, caps and all other equipment required in formula preparation is essential, as it minimises contamination risk and prevents an infant falling ill if bacteria is introduced into their feed.6 All equipment used in bottle feeding should be properly sterilised until an infant is 12 months old.6 Before sterilising, the parent or carer must thoroughly wash their hands with soap, before washing all equipment in warm, soapy water.6 A clean brush should be used to scrub any remaining traces of milk from bottles before beginning sterilisation.6

There are various approaches to sterilising including boiling, chemical sterilising and steam sterilising. The key principles of each are below. Parents and carers should always be careful when sterilising – particularly using boiling or steaming methods – as these can cause severe burns.6 All equipment should be kept out of reach of children and should only be handled when necessary.6

Boiling:

– Put all equipment in a large saucepan and submerge in tap water, before putting the lid on the pot and bringing to a boil. Allow water to boil for 5 minutes, then turn off heat and allow to cool.6

– Sterilised equipment may be stored in a clean container in the fridge for 24 hours. After this time, it will need to be sterilised again before use.6

Chemical Sterilising:

  • Sterilising chemicals most often come as a liquid or tablet. Follow the directions for use on the packaging to ensure the correct strength is achieved.
  • Mix the chosen chemicals with water in a large bowl, before fully submerging all feeding equipment in the solution.
  • Soak for at least an hour, before removing equipment and shaking off excess solution – but do not rinse.
  • This approach is only appropriate for plastic or glass items.
  • The solution should be freshly prepared every 24 hours.

Steam Sterilising:

  • Steam sterilising uses either an approved appliance which plugs into a power outlet, or a microwave, both of which use steam to sterilise feeding equipment.6
  • Follow the directions for use carefully.
  • Place equipment inside the steriliser and add the right amount of water as directed, before putting the lid on and allowing to steam for the specified time.
  • Leave the lid on until the bottles are required.
  • The steam steriliser should be wiped and dried once daily to maintain cleanliness.

Choosing bottles and teats:

Selecting the optimal bottle and teat to use in feeding is important. Some formulas require special consideration to ensure an infant can properly feed from the bottle, for example thickened formulas require fast-flow or variable teats to accommodate the thicker formula.6

When choosing bottles, parents or carers should consider:

  • Choosing plastic or glass bottles, based on individual preference.6
  • Purchasing at least three large bottles, including discs, teats, and caps which prevent leaking.
  • Opting for bottles which are smooth inside (without ribbing or grooves) as these are easier to thoroughly clean
  • Ensuring measurement guides on bottles have not worn off and are clearly identifiable.6

When selecting teats, factor in the following:

  • Rate of flow: Check the teat label to ensure it offers the right flow rate for the infant’s age and chosen formula. Some teats are designed for older infants and therefore can deliver too much formula too quickly for a newborn, flooding their mouth and potentially causing choking.6 Similarly, thicker formulas will require a faster flow teat, and vice versa.
  • Teat shape: Many teats are designed to mimic the shape of a mother’s nipple for a baby to feed, however no evidence supports the idea of one shape being superior to others.6 Parents and carers will identify the best shape of teat for their baby with time and testing. – If an infant is having difficulty getting formula from the bottle, a faster teat may be needed.30 Alternatively, if they seem unable to swallow fast enough, a slower teat may help.30 Many parents and carers find they need to test several teats to find the one best suited to their infant, and the infant’s needs will likely evolve over time.
  • Older infants may prefer sippy cups over a regular bottle and teat.

What if the child is allergic to cow’s milk protein or struggling with FGIDs?

If an infant has an allergy to cow’s milk protein or experiences other functional gastrointestinal disorders (FGIDs) like reflux, colic or constipation, there are various formula options available to ensure they can still access the nutrition they require.

Symptoms of cow’s milk protein allergy (CMA): CMA causes an infant’s immune system to react negatively to the proteins contained in cow’s milk.35 Reactions can occur immediately after consuming cow’s milk, up to a week later.35 Most children outgrow CMA by age 3-5, however some remain allergic.35 Symptoms can range in severity, with some children experiencing potentially life-threatening anaphylactic reactions, while others may experience dermatological symptoms

including facial swelling, hives, rashes, dermatitis, eczema or itchy eyes; gastrointestinal symptoms such as stomach aches, reflux and regurgitation, vomiting, diarrhoea, constipation, colic, and anaemia; or respiratory symptoms including wheezing, tightness or swelling in the throat, runny nose, sneezing and chronic coughing.35

The following options are available for infants with CMA:

  • Extensively hydrolysed formula: Suitable for mild to moderate CMA. The cow’s milk protein has been extensively broken down (hydrolysed).36
  • Soy-based formulas: Contains soy protein and should only be used for infants over 6 months old with CMA.36
  • Amino acid-based formulas: Suitable for severe CMA and available by prescription only. Formula is made up of individual amino acids which are particularly important for infants with severe allergy to cow’s milk.36 Discover formulas designed to support infants experiencing CMA here.

FGID: In their first year of life infants are prone to gastrointestinal symptoms, with over 50% experiencing at least one FGID or related symptoms during this time.37 Despite the fact these conditions usually resolve within the first year and are rarely a significant cause for concern, they can cause extreme distress for both the infant and their parents or carers.37

When an infant is struggling with a FGID or related symptoms, parental guidance and nutritional advice is essential.38,39 Parents should be reassured and offered recommendations for feeding volume, frequency and technique. They may also benefit from being offered with specialty formula options, which are specifically designed to provide ingredients shown to support formula-fed infants experiencing FGID symptoms such as reflux, regurgitation, colic, and constipation.38,39

Support your patients by recommending formulas designed specifically to address and cater to the needs of infants experiencing FGID.

By providing personalised, effective advice and reassurance to parents or carers, healthcare professionals can help to alleviate an infant’s distress and FGID symptoms, relieve parental/carer anxiety around feeding, reduce the cost burden to the healthcare system, prevent unnecessary use of medication, and improve quality of life for the whole family.38,40

References:

1. Sydney Children’s Hospitals Network. Breast milk – expressing, handling and storage [Internet]. Sydney: Sydney Children’s Hospitals Network; [cited 2023 Oct 5]. Available from: https://www.schn.health.nsw.gov.au/kids-health-hub/nutrition/infant-and-baby-nutrition#:~:text=to%20be%20fed.-,Breastfeeding,-Breastmilk%20supplies%20all

2. Salminen S, et al. The role of probiotics in gut health and immunity. Nutrients. 2020;12(7):1952.

3. Saturio S, et al. Probiotic strains and their impact on infant gut microbiota. Microorganisms. 2021;9(12):2415.

4. Godfrey KM, et al. Influence of maternal diet on fetal development. Trends Endocrinol Metab. 2010;21:199–205.

5. Bischoff SC. Gut health: a new objective in medicine? BMC Med. 2010;9:24.

6. BetterHealth. Bottle feeding – nutrition and safety [Internet]. Melbourne: Victorian Government; [cited 2025 July 24]. Available from: https://www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au/health/healthyliving/bottle-feeding-nutrition-and-safetyt

7. Food Standards Australia New Zealand. Infant formula products [Internet]. Canberra: FSANZ; 2024 Sep 4 [cited 2023 Oct 5]. Available from: https://www.foodstandards.gov.au/consumer/special-purpose-foods/infant-formula-products

8. Newburg DS, et al. In: Jensen RG, eds. Human milk composition. San Diego: Academic Press; 1995:273–349.

9. GIFA. Breastmilk composition [Internet]. Switzerland: GIFA; [cited 2025 July 28]. Available from: https://www.gifa.org/en/breastmilk-composition/

10. Danone Research & Innovation. The orchestral composition of human milk [Internet]. France: Danone; [cited 2025 July 30]. Available from: https://danonenutriciaacademy.in/prebiotics/hmocentreofexcellence/expert-article/orchestral-composition-of-human-milk/

11. Overbeek WA, et al. Nutritional needs of infants: ESPGHAN guidelines. ESPGHAN. 2019.

12. Mihatsch WA, et al. Critical nutrients in infant formula. Acta Paediatr. 2006;95:843–8.

13. Moro G, et al. Clinical benefits of prebiotics in infant formula. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 2002;34:291–5.

14. Bode L, et al. Human milk oligosaccharides: structure and function. Glycobiology. 2012;22:1147–62.

15. Bruzzese E, et al. Impact of probiotics on infant health. Clin Nutr. 2009;28:156–61.

16. Shiva B, et al. A comprehensive review on infant formula: nutritional and functional constituents, recent trends in processing and its impact on infants’ gut microbiota. Front in Nutr. 2023;10:1194679.

17. Zhou Y, et al. Comprehensive Analysis of Breastfeeding’s Influence on Child Health Outcomes: A Cross-Sectional Study. BMJ Open. 2021 Aug 5;11(8):e45123.

18. Australian Institute of Health and Welfare. Australia’s children, Breastfeeding and nutrition [Internet]. Canberra: AIHW; [cited 2025 July 31]. Available from: https://www.aihw.gov.au/reports/children-youth/australias-children/contents/health/breastfeeding-nutrition

19. Knol J, et al. Colonization of the infant gut and its impact on health. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 2005;40:36–42.

20. Gibson GR, et al. The human gut microbiome and its role in health and disease. Nat Rev Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2017;14(8):491–502.

21. Miqdady MS, et al. Pediatric gastrointestinal disorders and nutrition. Pediatr Gastroenterol Hepatol Nutr. 2020;23(1):1–14.

22. Arslanoglu S, et al. Early nutrition and long-term health outcomes. J Nutr. 2008;138:1091–1096.

23. World Health Organization. Breastfeeding [Internet]. Geneva: WHO; [cited 2025 July 25]. Available from: https://www.who.int/health-topics/breastfeeding#tab=tab_1

24. National Health and Medical Research Council. Infant feeding guidelines – Information for health workers [Internet]. Canberra: NHMRC Australian Government; [cited 2025 July 24]. Available from: https://www.eatforhealth.gov.au/sites/default/files/files/the_guidelines/n56_infant_feeding_guidelines.pdf

25. Children’s Health Queensland Hospital and Health Service. Your guide to the first 12 months – Child Health Info [Internet]. Queensland: Queensland Government; [cited 2025 July 26]. Available from: https://www.childrens.health.qld.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0033/174984/Your-guide-to-the-first-12-months.pdf

26. Aptaclub. Bottle-feeding routine – Baby feeding chart [Internet]. UK: Aptaclub; [cited 2025 July 27]. Available from: https://www.aptaclub.co.uk/feeding/formula-feeding/schedule/how-much-and-how-often.html

27. Queensland Government. Infant formula feeding [Internet]. Brisbane: Queensland Government; [cited 2025 July 30]. Available from: https://www.qld.gov.au/health/condition/child-health/babies-and-toddlers/infant-formula-feeding

28. Appleton J, et al. Infant formula feeding practices and the role of advice and support: an exploratory qualitative study. BMC Pediatr. 2018 Jan 24;18(1):12.

29. KidsHealth. Formula feeding [Internet]. USA: Nemours KidsHealth; [cited 2025 July 25]. Available from: https://kidshealth.org/en/parents/formulafeed-often.html

30. Raising Children Network. Bottle Feeding Babies: Giving the bottle [Internet]. Melbourne: Raising Children Network; [cited 2025 July 30]. Available from: https://raisingchildren.net.au/newborns/breastfeeding-bottle-feeding/bottle-feeding/giving-the-bottle

31. BabyCenter. How much formula newborns and babies need [Internet]. US: BabyCenter; [cited 2025 July 25]. Available from: https://www.babycenter.com/baby/formula-feeding/how-much-formula-your-baby-needs_9136

32. Zhou Y, et al. Development of feeding cues during infancy and toddlerhood: a cross-sectional observational study. Children. 2020;7(11):218.

33. Food Standards Australia New Zealand. Labelling information for consumers [Internet]. Canberra: FSANZ; 2020 [cited 2025 July 30]. Available from: https://www.foodstandards.gov.au/sites/default/files/food-standards-code/proposals/Documents/Supporting%20Document%203%20-%20Labelling.pdf

34. South Eastern Sydney Local Health District. Preparation, Storage and Safe Use of Infant Formula [Internet]. Sydney: SESLHD; [cited 2025 July 23]. Available from: https://www.seslhd.health.nsw.gov.au/sites/default/files/documents/SESLHDGL%20085%20-%20Preparation%2C%20Storage%20and%20Safe%20Use%20of%20Infant%20Formula.pdf

35. Nutricia. Cow’s Milk Protein Allergy Hub [Internet]. Sydney: Danone; [cited 2025 Aug 3]. Available from: https://nutricia.com.au/paediatrics/clinical-conditions/cows-milk-protein-allergy-hub/

36. Nutricia. Signs and Symptoms of CMA | Paediatrics Healthcare [Internet]. Sydney: Danone; [cited 2025 Aug 3]. Available from: https://nutricia.com.au/paediatrics/clinical-conditions/cows-milk-protein-allergy-hub/is-it-cmpa/

37. Mahon J, et al. Understanding the burden of cow’s milk allergy in children. BMJ Open. 2017;7(11):e015594.

38. Nutricia. GI Management of_FGIDs [Internet]. Sydney: Danone; [cited 2025 July 31]. Available from: https://nutricia.com.au/paediatrics/resources/ALLER0058_GI_Management_of_FGIDs_Ad.pdf

39. Nutricia. Nutrition prescriptions – Paediatrics [Internet]. Sydney: Danone; [cited 2025 Aug 3. Available from: https://nutricia.com.au/paediatrics/nutrition-prescriptions/#

40. Vandenplas Y, et al. Guidelines for the management of gastrointestinal disorders in infants. Acta Paediatr Int J Paediatr. 2016;105(3):244–52.